Theme 3 Nomadic Empires

Introduction

The concept of "nomadic empires" might seem paradoxical at first glance. Nomads are often perceived as mobile groups with simple economic and political structures, while the term 'empire' suggests territorial stability, complex administration, and established social hierarchies. However, studying historical nomadic groups that formed empires, such as those in Central Asia, challenges these narrow definitions.

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While Theme 4 examines state formations arising from the Bedouin nomadic traditions of the Arabian peninsula (the central Islamic lands), this chapter focuses on a distinct group: the **Mongols of Central Asia**. Under the leadership of **Genghis Khan**, the Mongols established a vast **transcontinental empire** spanning parts of Europe and Asia during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Compared to the highly developed agrarian empires like China, the nomadic societies of Mongolia might appear humbler. However, they were not isolated; they actively interacted with and learned from the wider world, impacting and being shaped by historical changes.

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This chapter will explore how the Mongols, particularly under Genghis Khan, adapted their traditional social and political customs to create a powerful military force and a sophisticated system of governance. Ruling an empire encompassing diverse populations, economies, and religious systems required innovation and compromise, as they could not simply impose their steppe traditions on conquered territories. This interaction fundamentally changed both the Mongol society and the history of Eurasia.

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Sources And Challenges

Our knowledge of nomadic societies is often limited because the steppe dwellers themselves typically did not produce written literature. Therefore, information comes primarily from sources created by people in sedentary (city-based) societies, such as chronicles, travelogues, and administrative documents. These sources often present biased and sometimes ignorant views of nomadic life, frequently characterizing nomads as primitive or barbaric marauders.

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However, the Mongols' imperial success attracted many literate individuals from various backgrounds – Buddhist, Confucian, Christian, Turkish, and Muslim. Some wrote travelogues; others entered the service of Mongol rulers. Many of these accounts, despite being written by outsiders, offered sympathetic views and even praises of the Mongols, challenging the prevailing negative stereotypes. Studying Mongol history allows us to question how sedentary societies have historically portrayed nomadic groups as inherently inferior or barbaric.

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Valuable research on the Mongols began with Russian scholars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as the Tsarist empire expanded into Central Asia. Early work often consisted of surveys by travelers, soldiers, merchants, and antiquarians within a colonial context. In the early twentieth century, Soviet Marxist historiography interpreted the Mongol empire's emergence as a transition from a tribal (relatively classless) society to a feudal system (with lords and peasants), fitting into a deterministic view of historical evolution. Despite this framework, excellent research on Mongol languages, society, and culture was conducted by scholars like Boris Yakovlevich Vladimirtsov. However, some scholars, like Vasily Vladimirovich Bartold, faced censorship from the Stalinist regime for their positive assessments of Genghis Khan and the Mongol empire, which were seen as potentially encouraging regional nationalism. Bartold's extensive writings were only published in the 1960s.

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The vast geographical scope of the Mongol empire means that sources are available in numerous languages, including Chinese, Mongolian, Persian, Arabic, Italian, Latin, French, and Russian. Studying these sources presents challenges, as different language versions of the same text can have differing content, and historical interpretations require expertise in languages and philology (studying the meaning of words and phrases in their historical context) to accurately understand Mongol usage, especially since the Mongols themselves produced little native written literature initially.

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Social And Political Background

The **Mongols** were not a single homogeneous group but a diverse collection of peoples with linguistic similarities to other tribes in the region, such as the Tatars, Khitan, Manchus, and various Turkic tribes. Their economies varied: some were **pastoralists**, herding horses, sheep, cattle, goats, and camels, while others, living in the Siberian forests to the north, were **hunter-gatherers**, trading in animal furs.

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Diversity, Geography, And Economy

The pastoral Mongols nomadized across the steppes of Central Asia, in what is now Mongolia. This landscape features wide plains, surrounded by the Altai mountains in the west and the Gobi desert in the south, drained by rivers like the Onon and Selenga. The region experiences extremes of temperature, with harsh winters and brief, dry summers. While limited agriculture was possible in parts of the pastoral regions, the Mongols primarily relied on animal herding and did not adopt farming extensively, unlike some Turkic groups. Neither the pastoral nor hunter-gatherer economies could support dense populations, so cities did not develop in this region. The Mongols lived in portable tents called 'gers' and moved with their herds between winter and summer pastures.

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Social Organisation And Alliances

Mongol society was organized into patrilineal lineages. The scarce resources of the steppe meant that wealth and influence were concentrated in richer families who owned more animals and pasturelands and thus attracted more followers. These wealthier lineages held greater sway in local politics. Periodic natural disasters, such as severe winters or droughts, could trigger conflicts over resources, leading families to form temporary alliances for mutual protection or raiding. While alliances around powerful lineages were common, these confederations were generally small and short-lived, with a few historical exceptions. The confederation assembled by Genghis Khan in the early thirteenth century was perhaps matched in size only by the one led by Attila the Hun in the fifth century.

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Unlike Attila's confederation, however, Genghis Khan's political system proved to be far more durable, surviving his death and enabling the Mongols to conquer and administer complex agrarian and urban societies (sedentary societies) in regions like China, Iran, and Eastern Europe – environments vastly different from their own steppe habitat. They successfully countered much larger armies equipped with superior technology (like siege engines initially).

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Interaction With Sedentary Societies

Despite the differences between their nomadic and sedentary economies, Mongol society and neighboring agrarian civilizations, particularly China, were not isolated. The limited resources of the steppe lands often compelled the Mongols and other Central Asian nomads to engage in **trade and barter** with their sedentary neighbors. This interaction was mutually beneficial, with the Mongols exchanging horses, furs, and hunted game for agricultural products (like grain) and iron tools from China.

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However, these trade relationships were not always peaceful. Both sides sometimes used military pressure to gain better terms. When Mongol lineages formed alliances, they could exert greater pressure on China for favorable trade conditions, or resort to outright plunder instead of trade. Conversely, when the Mongols were disunited, China could assert its influence in the steppe region. Frontier wars between nomads and sedentary empires were particularly disruptive for settled societies, causing damage to agriculture and cities. Nomads, being mobile, could retreat from conflict zones with fewer losses.

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Historically, China suffered extensively from nomadic incursions. To protect their territories, Chinese regimes, as early as the eighth century BCE, began building fortifications along the frontier. Starting from the third century BCE, these individual fortifications were integrated into the massive defensive structure known today as the **Great Wall of China**, a physical testament to the fear and disturbance caused by nomadic raids on the agrarian societies of north China.

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The Career Of Genghis Khan

**Genghis Khan**, originally named **Temujin**, was born around 1162 near the Onon river in present-day Mongolia. He was the son of Yesugei, a chieftain of the Kiyat group of families, related to the Borjigid clan.

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Early Life And Rise To Power

Temujin's early life was marked by hardship. His father was murdered when he was young, leaving his mother, Oelun-eke, to raise him and his siblings in difficult conditions. The following decade brought further challenges, including capture and enslavement, and the kidnapping of his wife, Borte, whom he had to fight to recover. Despite these adversities, Temujin forged important alliances and friendships during this period. Boghurchu became a trusted early ally, and Jamuqa became his blood-brother (anda). Temujin also renewed old alliances, notably with Tughril/Ong Khan, ruler of the Kereyits and his father's former blood-brother.

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Throughout the 1180s and 1190s, Temujin used his alliance with Ong Khan to defeat adversaries, including his former friend Jamuqa, who had become a rival. After overcoming Jamuqa, Temujin felt strong enough to challenge other powerful tribes, including the Tatars (his father's assassins) and the Kereyits, defeating Ong Khan in 1203. The final defeat of the Naiman people and the powerful Jamuqa in 1206 solidified Temujin's position as the dominant figure in steppe politics.

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At an assembly of Mongol chieftains (quriltai) in 1206, Temujin was formally proclaimed the **‘Great Khan of the Mongols’ (Qa’an)** and granted the title **Genghis Khan**, meaning the ‘Oceanic Khan’ or ‘Universal Ruler’.

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Before the quriltai of 1206, Genghis Khan had already begun to reorganize the Mongol people into a more unified and effective military force, which was crucial for his future conquests.

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Conquests In China And West Asia

Genghis Khan's primary ambition after unifying the Mongols was to conquer **China**, which was divided into three realms: the Hsi Hsia in the northwest, the Jurchen Chin dynasty ruling north China (from Peking), and the Sung dynasty controlling south China. By 1209, the Hsi Hsia were defeated. In 1213, the Great Wall of China was breached, and Peking was sacked in 1215. Campaigns against the Chin dynasty continued until 1234, but Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia in 1216, leaving the ongoing military operations to his commanders.

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In 1218, the Mongols defeated the Qara Khita, extending their influence westwards to the Amu Darya river and the states of Transoxiana and Khwarazm. A conflict erupted with Sultan Muhammad, the ruler of Khwarazm, after he executed Mongol envoys. Between 1219 and 1221, Genghis Khan launched brutal campaigns in West Asia. Major cities that surrendered, such as Otrar, Bukhara, Samarqand, Balkh, and Gurganj, were taken. Cities that resisted, like Merv and Nishapur, faced devastation and massacres. At Nishapur, after a Mongol prince was killed during the siege, Genghis Khan ordered the complete destruction of the city and the killing of all living beings, including animals, as an act of vengeance. Contemporary accounts report staggering casualty figures from the capture of these cities, although precise numbers are difficult to verify.

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Mongol forces also pursued Sultan Muhammad's son, Jalaluddin, into Afghanistan and the Sindh province (present-day Pakistan). Genghis Khan reached the banks of the Indus River and reportedly considered invading North India and Assam to return to Mongolia. However, the harsh climate, unfamiliar terrain, and negative omens reported by his Shaman (soothsayer) led him to abandon this plan.

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Genghis Khan died in 1227 CE, after a life dominated by military campaigns. His military achievements were remarkable for their scope and speed. They were the result of transforming traditional steppe warfare techniques into highly effective strategies adapted to various terrains and opponents.

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Military Strategies And Innovations

Genghis Khan's military success was built upon and innovated upon the skills of the Mongol and Turkic steppe peoples:

• **Speed and Mobility:** The Mongols' legendary horse-riding skills provided their army with unparalleled speed and mobility, enabling rapid movements across vast distances.
• **Archery:** Their skill as rapid-shooting archers from horseback was a key combat advantage, perfected through regular hunting expeditions that served as military exercises.
• **Winter Campaigns:** Mongols effectively utilized the harsh winter conditions of the steppe, treating frozen rivers as pathways to launch unexpected attacks on enemy cities and camps.
• **Siege Warfare:** Recognizing the limitations of nomadic cavalry against fortified cities, Genghis Khan quickly learned and adapted siege warfare techniques, incorporating engineers and light, portable siege engines and naphtha bombardment to overcome walled settlements, with devastating effect on opponents.

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These innovations, combined with strategic planning, discipline, and ruthlessness, allowed the relatively smaller Mongol forces to defeat larger, better-equipped armies of sedentary empires. (Various depictions in the text illustrate the contrast between European and Mongol soldiers and the scale of conquest).

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The Mongols After Genghis Khan

After Genghis Khan's death in 1227, the Mongol Empire continued its rapid expansion under his descendants. Mongol expansion in the post-Genghis Khan era can be broadly divided into two phases.

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Phases Of Expansion

• **First Phase (1236-1242):** Marked by significant gains in the Russian steppes, including areas like Bulghar and Kiev, and devastating campaigns that reached Poland and Hungary in Eastern Europe, led by Batu, a grandson of Genghis Khan.
• **Second Phase (1255-1300):** Led to the conquest of the rest of China (completed in 1279 with the defeat of the Sung dynasty), as well as the conquest of Iran, Iraq, and Syria in the Middle East. The frontiers of the empire largely stabilized after these campaigns.

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While Mongol military forces experienced few major defeats in the decades immediately following 1203, their impetus in the West began to wane after the 1260s. Despite being within striking distance of places like Vienna in Western Europe and Egypt, further significant expansion in these directions was halted. Their retreat from the Hungarian steppes after 1242 and a notable defeat by Egyptian Mamluk forces at the Battle of Ain Jalut in Palestine in 1260 signaled the emergence of new political dynamics within the Mongol Empire itself.

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Factors Limiting Western Expansion

The cessation of major Mongol expansion in the West was influenced by several factors:

• **Internal Politics and Succession Struggles:** Competition for the position of Great Khan within the Mongol ruling family, particularly between the descendants of Genghis Khan's sons Jochi and Ogodei in the first two generations, diverted resources and attention away from sustained campaigns in Europe.
• **Rise of the Toluyid Branch and Focus on the East:** As the Jochi and Ogodei lineages were gradually marginalized in the succession by the descendants of Toluy (Genghis Khan's youngest son), military campaigns were redirected. With the accession of Mongke (a Toluyid) and later Qubilai Khan, increasing focus and resources were directed towards the conquest of China, which became the heartland of the vast Yuan dynasty (ruled by Qubilai). This diversion of forces meant that campaigns in the West received less support.
• **Conflict within the Ruling Family:** Growing conflict between the Jochid (Golden Horde) and Toluyid (Il-Khanate of Iran) descendants along the Russian-Iranian frontier further diverted Jochid attention away from European expansion.
• **Effective Resistance:** The defeat by the Egyptian Mamluks at Ain Jalut in 1260 demonstrated that some forces could effectively resist Mongol expansion.

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Paradoxically, the internal fragmentation of the Mongol realm into separate ulus (territories ruled by different branches of the family) and competition among cousins occurred even as the empire achieved its greatest territorial extent. However, this internal turbulence did not completely halt expansion, particularly the conquest and reunification of China under Mongol rule.

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Social, Political And Military Organisation

Genghis Khan's military and political success was founded on his ability to transform the traditional social and military organization of the Mongol tribes into a highly effective imperial structure. Traditionally, in Mongol and other nomadic societies, all able-bodied adult males were warriors who served in the armed forces when needed. The unification of various Mongol tribes and the subsequent campaigns against diverse peoples led to the incorporation of new members into Genghis Khan's army, transforming it from a relatively homogeneous force into a highly diverse military machine.

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Army Composition And Organisation

Genghis Khan systematically sought to dismantle old tribal identities and loyalties that could potentially undermine his central authority. He reorganized his army based on the traditional steppe system of decimal units (divisions of 10, 100, 1,000, and notionally 10,000 soldiers - a tuman). However, unlike the old system where tribal groupings might coexist within these units, Genghis Khan deliberately broke up old tribal affiliations and distributed members into new military units. Individuals were strictly prohibited from moving from their assigned group without permission, under harsh penalties. This created new, composite military units that included fragmented groups from various tribes and clans. This restructuring altered the traditional steppe social order, integrating different lineages and clans under a new identity centered around loyalty to Genghis Khan and his lineage.

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Within this new hierarchy, military contingents were assigned to Genghis Khan's four sons and to specially selected captains (noyan). A core group of loyal followers who had supported Genghis Khan through difficult times were also given high status. Some were publicly recognized as his "blood-brothers" (anda), while others of humbler rank were given special status as his bondsmen (naukar), signifying their close personal relationship and loyalty to the Great Khan. This new aristocracy's status was derived directly from their connection to Genghis Khan, rather than solely from their previous tribal or clan lineage.

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New Hierarchy And Ulus System

Genghis Khan assigned responsibility for governing the newly conquered peoples and territories to his four sons. These areas were initially referred to as **ulus**. The term ulus did not initially mean fixed, defined territorial units, but rather referred to the populations and pasturelands allocated to each son. Genghis Khan's reign was characterized by rapid conquests and expanding frontiers, where territories were still fluid. For instance, his eldest son, Jochi, was allocated the Russian steppes, but the western extent of his ulus was described as extending as far as his horses could roam. The second son, Chaghatai, received the Transoxianian steppe and lands north of the Pamir mountains. Genghis Khan designated his third son, Ogodei, to succeed him as the Great Khan. The youngest son, Toluy, received the ancestral lands of Mongolia.

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Genghis Khan intended his sons to rule the empire collectively. Military contingents (tama) from the armies of individual princes were stationed in each ulus to reinforce this idea of a shared dominion. Decision-making concerning the empire or the family, particularly regarding campaigns, distribution of plunder, pasturelands, and succession, were made collectively at assemblies of chieftains (quriltais).

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Courier System (Yam)

To maintain communication and control over his vast and rapidly expanding empire, Genghis Khan established a remarkably efficient **rapid courier system** called the **yam**. This system involved a network of outposts with fresh horses and dispatch riders stationed at regular intervals across the empire's territory. Mongol nomads contributed a portion of their herds (a tenth, called the qubcur tax) to maintain this system, receiving benefits in return. The yam system was further developed after Genghis Khan's death and was noted by travelers for its speed and reliability, enabling the Great Khans to stay informed about developments even in the most distant regions of their realm.

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Impact On Conquered Peoples And Trade (Pax Mongolica)

While the organizational innovations were crucial for the Mongols, the conquered populations often experienced devastating impacts. Campaigns in the first half of the thirteenth century involved the destruction of cities, devastation of agricultural lands, and disruption of trade and production. Mass killings and enslavement were widespread, affecting all social classes from elites to peasants. In regions like the arid Iranian plateau (Khurasan), the disruption was so severe that maintenance of underground irrigation canals (qanats) ceased, leading to their disrepair and ecological devastation from which some areas did not recover for centuries.

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However, once the intense period of conquest subsided, the Mongol Empire created a vast, unified political entity that facilitated unprecedented connections across Eurasia. The "peace" established by Mongol rule, known as the **Pax Mongolica**, fostered the flourishing of trade and travel along the **Silk Route**. Unlike previous periods, the trade routes under Mongol control extended further north into Mongolia and to Karakorum, the capital, rather than terminating solely in China. Communication and ease of travel were prioritized to maintain the empire's coherence. Travelers and traders were provided with passes (paiza or gerege) for safe conduct across the vast territories, and traders paid a tax (baj) for this security, acknowledging the authority of the Mongol Khan. The Pax Mongolica enabled significant exchange of goods, technologies, ideas, and people across the continent.

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Pressure To Sedentarise

Over time, the relationship between the nomadic ruling class and the sedentary populations within the empire evolved. While initially there was pressure within the Mongol leadership to convert conquered agricultural lands into pasture (e.g., advocating massacre of peasants in north China in the 1230s), the reality of ruling vast sedentary populations led to compromises and a shift in policy. By the later thirteenth century (1270s), figures like Qubilai Khan (ruler of the Yuan dynasty in China) positioned themselves as protectors of peasants and cities. Ghazan Khan (Il-Khanid ruler in Iran in the 1290s) even delivered speeches to his Mongol commanders urging them to protect the peasantry rather than pillage them, recognizing that the long-term prosperity and stability of the realm depended on a flourishing agrarian economy.

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The pressure to adopt a sedentary lifestyle and administrative practices was greater in the newly conquered territories, particularly in areas distant from the original Mongol steppe habitat. While nomadic traditions persisted longer among Mongol groups in Central Asia and Russia (descendants of Chaghatai and Jochi, forming the Golden Horde), ruling complex sedentary societies required adopting administrative practices and even settling down to some extent. By the mid-thirteenth century, the initial sense of a common dominion among Genghis Khan's sons gradually gave way to separate, territorially defined dynasties ruling their respective ulus.

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Yasa (Legal Code)

The **yasa** (also spelled yassa or jasaq) is a code of law that Genghis Khan is traditionally said to have promulgated, possibly at the quriltai of 1206. Initially, the term yasaq likely referred to administrative regulations concerning aspects like the organization of hunts, military structure, and the postal system. However, by the middle of the thirteenth century, the meaning of yasa evolved to signify the broader "legal code of Genghis Khan."

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Recent research suggests that the yasa was likely a compilation of the customary traditions and practices of the Mongol tribes, but it was presented and viewed as an authoritative legal code established by their revered ancestor. By claiming the yasa as Genghis Khan's law, the Mongols positioned him as a "lawgiver" figure, similar to historical lawgivers like Moses or Solomon, whose code could be imposed on their subjects. The yasa served as a powerful tool for uniting the diverse Mongol people around a shared set of beliefs and identity, reinforcing their connection to Genghis Khan and his descendants. Even as they adopted elements of sedentary life, the yasa provided an ideological framework that helped them retain their ethnic identity and assert their authority and "law" over the conquered sedentary populations. It was a vital element in the ideology of Mongol universal dominion, providing a sense of legitimacy and shared purpose.

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Conclusion: Situating Genghis Khan And The Mongols In World History

When considering Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire, it is essential to move beyond simplistic and often biased portrayals found in historical sources from conquered sedentary societies. While images of conquest and destruction are valid parts of their history, they do not encompass the full picture.

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Contrasting Perspectives

For residents of cities devastated by Mongol campaigns, Genghis Khan was indeed a terrifying conqueror responsible for immense destruction and loss of life. However, for the Mongols themselves, Genghis Khan was a transformative figure. He unified fragmented tribes, ended internecine warfare, brought prosperity, created the largest contiguous land empire the world had seen, and re-established major trade routes. These contrasting perspectives highlight how the dominant narrative can overshadow or erase other valid viewpoints.

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Multicultural Empire And Ideology

Beyond conquest, the Mongol Empire was notable for its **multicultural, multilingual, and multi-religious** character. While the Mongol Khans themselves came from various faith backgrounds (Shaman, Buddhist, Christian, eventually Islam), they generally pursued a policy of religious tolerance and did not impose their personal beliefs as public policy. They recruited administrators and military personnel from all ethnic and religious groups within their vast dominion. This pluralistic approach was highly unusual for the time and is an important aspect of their rule, which historians are now studying for its influence on later empires, including the Mughal Empire in India.

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Legacy And Modern Identity

Despite the empire's eventual fragmentation, the inspiration of Genghis Khan remained a potent force. Centuries after his death, aspiring rulers like Timur (a Turkic monarch in the late fourteenth century) felt the need to connect themselves to the prestigious Genghis Khanid lineage to assert legitimacy, even declaring themselves 'son-in-law' to a Genghis Khanid princess. Today, in modern Mongolia, after decades of Soviet influence, Genghis Khan has been re-embraced as a central figure of national identity. He is publicly venerated as a great national hero whose achievements mobilize memories of a powerful past to shape the nation's identity for the future.

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The nature of available sources, often written by outsiders with their own biases, makes it challenging to fully understand the internal motivations and ideology that drove the Mongol confederation and empire-building ambition. However, studying their organizational innovations, the evolving meaning of concepts like yasa, and the accounts from various perspectives allows for a more nuanced understanding of their complex place in world history.

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The chapter concludes by emphasizing that despite the focus on the dramatic conquests, the Mongol Empire's legacy includes its facilitation of cross-continental exchange during the Pax Mongolica and its unique approach to governing a diverse population, providing historical models for later multi-ethnic states.

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